Create your own language

The Language Creator generates constructed languages from explicit typological choices, aiming to produce languages that resemble natural human ones in structure and behaviour.

A robot at a blackboard, generating a language from typological parameters. — The Language Creator at work.

The results include phonology, grammar, glossed examples, dictionaries and sample texts.

The questionnaire comes pre-filled with random values. You can therefore create a language immediately by simply clicking on the Create button there, or customise the settings first.

A sample from Nyash, the latest language generated by the Language Creator:

initial XML:

<s connector="but">
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp tam="past-punct">
    <verb>arise</verb>
  </vp>
  <np role="subj" tr="theme">
    <relp>
      <vp tam="pres-state" evidence="inferred">
        <verb>be</verb>
      </vp>
      <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" head="this">
        <noun>langname</noun>
      </np>
      <np role="obj">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme">
          <np def="def" number="plur">
            <pron person="1incl" number="plur"/>
          </np>
          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme">
            <noun>language</noun>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <np def="indef" number="sing">
      <noun>manner</noun>
      <adj>different</adj>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

cleanup:

<s connector="but">
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
-  <vp tam="past-punct">
-    <verb>arise</verb>
+  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active">
+    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
  <np role="subj" tr="theme">
    <relp>
-      <vp tam="pres-state" evidence="inferred">
-        <verb>be</verb>
+      <vp evidence="inferred" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active">
+        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
-      <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" head="this">
-        <noun>langname</noun>
+      <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" head="this" locus="number">
+        <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
      </np>
      <np role="obj">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme">
-          <np def="def" number="plur">
-            <pron person="1incl" number="plur"/>
+          <np def="def" number="plur" locus="number" role="owner">
+            <word person="1incl" number="plur" posp="pron"/>
          </np>
-          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme">
-            <noun>language</noun>
+          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned">
+            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
-    <np def="indef" number="sing">
-      <noun>manner</noun>
-      <adj>different</adj>
+    <np def="indef" number="sing" locus="number">
+      <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
+      <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module articles:

<s connector="but">
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
  <np role="subj" tr="theme">
    <relp>
      <vp evidence="inferred" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
      <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" head="this" locus="number">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
      </np>
      <np role="obj">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme">
          <np def="def" number="plur" locus="number" role="owner">
            <word person="1incl" number="plur" posp="pron"/>
          </np>
          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
-    <np def="indef" number="sing" locus="number">
+    <np number="sing" locus="number">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
      <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module nonpastonly:

<s connector="but">
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
-  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active">
+  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
  <np role="subj" tr="theme">
    <relp>
-      <vp evidence="inferred" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active">
+      <vp evidence="inferred" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
      <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" head="this" locus="number">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
      </np>
      <np role="obj">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme">
          <np def="def" number="plur" locus="number" role="owner">
            <word person="1incl" number="plur" posp="pron"/>
          </np>
          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <np number="sing" locus="number">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
      <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module noepistemic:

<s connector="but">
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
  <np role="subj" tr="theme">
    <relp>
-      <vp evidence="inferred" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
+      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
      <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" head="this" locus="number">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
      </np>
      <np role="obj">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme">
          <np def="def" number="plur" locus="number" role="owner">
            <word person="1incl" number="plur" posp="pron"/>
          </np>
          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <np number="sing" locus="number">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
      <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module NRel:

<s connector="but">
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
-  <np role="subj" tr="theme">
-    <relp>
+  <np id="parent">
+    <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp">
+      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
+    </np>
+    <relp comma="after">
+      <np id="relnp" number="sing" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before">
+        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
+      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
-      <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" head="this" locus="number">
-        <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
-      </np>
      <np role="obj">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme">
          <np def="def" number="plur" locus="number" role="owner">
            <word person="1incl" number="plur" posp="pron"/>
          </np>
          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <np number="sing" locus="number">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
      <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module sentenceconnectors:

<s connector="but">
+  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
  <np id="parent">
    <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
      <np id="relnp" number="sing" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
      <np role="obj">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme">
          <np def="def" number="plur" locus="number" role="owner">
            <word person="1incl" number="plur" posp="pron"/>
          </np>
          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <np number="sing" locus="number">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
      <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module subordinate: No change.

tva1
tva2

module affixdensity: No change.

module adpositions:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
  <np id="parent">
    <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
      <np id="relnp" number="sing" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
      <np role="obj">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme">
          <np def="def" number="plur" locus="number" role="owner">
            <word person="1incl" number="plur" posp="pron"/>
          </np>
          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
+    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
+    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC">
      <np number="sing" locus="number">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
        <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
      </np>
+      <np def="def" number="sing">
+        <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
+      </np>
+    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module constorder: No change.

module casemarking:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
-  <np id="parent">
+  <np id="parent" case="ABS">
    <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
      <np id="relnp" number="sing" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
      <np role="obj">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme">
          <np def="def" number="plur" locus="number" role="owner">
            <word person="1incl" number="plur" posp="pron"/>
          </np>
          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC">
      <np number="sing" locus="number">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
        <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
      </np>
      <np def="def" number="sing">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
      </np>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module addgender:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
-  <np id="parent" case="ABS">
-    <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp">
+  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim">
+    <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
-      <np id="relnp" number="sing" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before">
+      <np id="relnp" number="sing" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
-      <np role="obj">
-        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme">
+      <np role="obj" gender="anim">
+        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim">
          <np def="def" number="plur" locus="number" role="owner">
            <word person="1incl" number="plur" posp="pron"/>
          </np>
-          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned">
+          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC">
-      <np number="sing" locus="number">
+      <np number="sing" locus="number" gender="anim">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
        <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
      </np>
-      <np def="def" number="sing">
+      <np def="def" number="sing" gender="inanim">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
      </np>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module propagatenumber:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
-  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim">
+  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim" number="sing">
    <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
      <np id="relnp" number="sing" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
-      <np role="obj" gender="anim">
-        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim">
+      <np role="obj" gender="anim" number="plur">
+        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim" number="sing">
          <np def="def" number="plur" locus="number" role="owner">
            <word person="1incl" number="plur" posp="pron"/>
          </np>
          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
-    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC">
+    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC" number="sing">
      <np number="sing" locus="number" gender="anim">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
        <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
      </np>
      <np def="def" number="sing" gender="inanim">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
      </np>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module simplifynumber:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
-  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim" number="sing">
-    <np def="def" number="sing" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim">
+  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim">
+    <np def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
-      <np id="relnp" number="sing" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim">
+      <np id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
-      <np role="obj" gender="anim" number="plur">
-        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim" number="sing">
-          <np def="def" number="plur" locus="number" role="owner">
-            <word person="1incl" number="plur" posp="pron"/>
+      <np role="obj" gender="anim">
+        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim">
+          <np def="def" locus="number" role="owner">
+            <word person="1incl" posp="pron"/>
          </np>
-          <np def="def" number="sing" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim">
+          <np def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
-    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC" number="sing">
-      <np number="sing" locus="number" gender="anim">
+    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC">
+      <np locus="number" gender="anim">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
        <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
      </np>
-      <np def="def" number="sing" gender="inanim">
+      <np def="def" gender="inanim">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
      </np>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

createpronouns: No change.

module markowned:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
-  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim">
-    <np def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim">
+  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
+    <np def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
-      <np id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim">
+      <np id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
-      <np role="obj" gender="anim">
+      <np role="obj" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim">
-          <np def="def" locus="number" role="owner">
-            <word person="1incl" posp="pron"/>
-          </np>
-          <np def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim">
+          <np def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC">
-      <np locus="number" gender="anim">
+      <np locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
        <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
      </np>
-      <np def="def" gender="inanim">
+      <np def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
      </np>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module ngen: No change.

module wordorder:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
    <np def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
      <np id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
      <np role="obj" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim">
          <np def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC">
      <np locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
-        <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
        <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
+        <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
      </np>
      <np def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
      </np>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

module wordorder: No change.

module conjp: No change.

flattenconjp: No change.

fixpronouns: No change.

copyuptophrase:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
  </vp>
  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
    <np def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
      <np id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
      </np>
-      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES">
+      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim">
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
      </vp>
      <np role="obj" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim">
          <np def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          </np>
        </np>
      </np>
    </relp>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC">
      <np locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
        <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
      </np>
      <np def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
      </np>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

prodrop: No change.

addclitics:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
+    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PAST"/>
+    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
+    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
+    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
  </vp>
  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
    <np def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
+      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
      <np id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
+        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim">
+        <thingy type="vpsubj" function="proclitic" gloss="3.anim"/>
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
+        <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PRES"/>
+        <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
+        <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
+        <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
      </vp>
      <np role="obj" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim">
          <np def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl">
            <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
+            <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="1incl"/>
          </np>
        </np>
+        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
      </np>
    </relp>
+    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC">
      <np locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
        <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
+        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
      </np>
      <np def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
+        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
      </np>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

propagateArgumentCase: No change.

unwrapArgumentNPs:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PAST"/>
    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
  </vp>
  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
    <np def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
      <np id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim">
        <thingy type="vpsubj" function="proclitic" gloss="3.anim"/>
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
        <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PRES"/>
        <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
        <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
        <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
      </vp>
-      <np role="obj" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
-        <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim">
+      <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim" role="obj" possessor="no.owner">
        <np def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl">
          <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
          <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="1incl"/>
        </np>
      </np>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-      </np>
    </relp>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC">
      <np locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
        <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
      </np>
      <np def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
      </np>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

unwrapOwnerOwned:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PAST"/>
    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
  </vp>
  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
    <np def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
      <np id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim">
        <thingy type="vpsubj" function="proclitic" gloss="3.anim"/>
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
        <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PRES"/>
        <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
        <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
        <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
      </vp>
-      <np type="owner_owned" tr="rheme" gender="anim" role="obj" possessor="no.owner">
      <np def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="1incl"/>
      </np>
-      </np>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </relp>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
-    <np type="owner_owned" case="LOC">
    <np locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
      <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
      <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </np>
    <np def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </np>
-    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

movedowntoword:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
-    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise"/>
+    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST"/>
    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PAST"/>
    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
  </vp>
  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
    <np def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
-      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname"/>
+      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname" def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
      <np id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
-        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON"/>
+        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON" id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim">
        <thingy type="vpsubj" function="proclitic" gloss="3.anim"/>
-        <word posp="verb" gloss="be"/>
+        <word posp="verb" gloss="be" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim"/>
        <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PRES"/>
        <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
        <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
        <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
      </vp>
      <np def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl">
-        <word posp="noun" gloss="language"/>
+        <word posp="noun" gloss="language" def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl"/>
        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="1incl"/>
      </np>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </relp>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
-    <word gloss="in" posp="pp"/>
+    <word gloss="in" posp="pp" p="in" precise="no" location="inside"/>
    <np locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
-      <word posp="adj" gloss="different"/>
-      <word posp="noun" gloss="manner"/>
+      <word posp="adj" gloss="different" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
+      <word posp="noun" gloss="manner" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </np>
    <np def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">
-      <word posp="noun" gloss="inside"/>
+      <word posp="noun" gloss="inside" def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner"/>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

About to call getSlotValue for arise/verb/voice/obligatory
Got active
About to call getSlotValue for langname/noun/case/obligatory
calling defaultval for case/
defaultval: noun, case
returning ABS
Got ABS
About to call getSlotValue for langname/noun/def/obligatory
Got def
About to call getSlotValue for be/verb/voice/obligatory
Got active
About to call getSlotValue for language/noun/case/obligatory
calling defaultval for case/
defaultval: noun, case
returning ABS
Got ABS
About to call getSlotValue for language/noun/def/obligatory
Got def
About to call getSlotValue for manner/noun/case/obligatory
calling defaultval for case/
defaultval: noun, case
returning ABS
Got ABS
About to call getSlotValue for manner/noun/def/obligatory
calling defaultval for def/
defaultval: noun, def
returning not.def
Got not.def
About to call getSlotValue for inside/noun/case/obligatory
calling defaultval for case/
defaultval: noun, case
returning ABS
Got ABS
About to call getSlotValue for inside/noun/def/obligatory
Got def

addaffixes:

<s connector="but">
  <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST"/>
+    <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active"/>
    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PAST"/>
    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
  </vp>
  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
    <np def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="langname" def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
+      <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
+      <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def"/>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </np>
    <relp comma="after">
      <np id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
        <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON" id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
      </np>
      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim">
        <thingy type="vpsubj" function="proclitic" gloss="3.anim"/>
        <word posp="verb" gloss="be" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim"/>
+        <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active"/>
        <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PRES"/>
        <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
        <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
        <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
      </vp>
      <np def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl">
        <word posp="noun" gloss="language" def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl"/>
+        <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
+        <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def"/>
        <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="1incl"/>
      </np>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </relp>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
  </np>
  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp" p="in" precise="no" location="inside"/>
    <np locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
      <word posp="adj" gloss="different" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
      <word posp="noun" gloss="manner" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
+      <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
+      <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="not.def"/>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </np>
    <np def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">
      <word posp="noun" gloss="inside" def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner"/>
+      <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
+      <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def"/>
      <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
    </np>
  </pp>
</s>

flatten:

<s connector="but">
+  <flat>
    <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
-  <littrans>But XXX, which is our language, arose in a different way.</littrans>
-  <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST"/>
    <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active"/>
    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PAST"/>
    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
-  </vp>
-  <np id="parent" case="ABS" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
-    <np def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
    <word posp="noun" gloss="langname" def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def"/>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-    </np>
-    <relp comma="after">
-      <np id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
    <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON" id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-      </np>
-      <vp negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim">
    <thingy type="vpsubj" function="proclitic" gloss="3.anim"/>
    <word posp="verb" gloss="be" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim"/>
    <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active"/>
    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PRES"/>
    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
-      </vp>
-      <np def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl">
-        <word posp="noun" gloss="language" def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl"/>
+    <word posp="noun" gloss="language" def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl" comma="after"/>
    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def"/>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="1incl"/>
-      </np>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-    </relp>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-  </np>
-  <pp p="in" precise="no" location="inside">
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp" p="in" precise="no" location="inside"/>
-    <np locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">
    <word posp="adj" gloss="different" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
    <word posp="noun" gloss="manner" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="not.def"/>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-    </np>
-    <np def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">
    <word posp="noun" gloss="inside" def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner"/>
    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def"/>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-    </np>
-  </pp>
+  </flat>
</s>

addvocab:

-<s connector="but">
+<s connector="but" translation="">
  <flat>
-    <word gloss="but" posp="conj"/>
-    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST"/>
-    <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active"/>
-    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PAST"/>
-    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
-    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
-    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
-    <word posp="noun" gloss="langname" def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
-    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
-    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def"/>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-    <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON" id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-    <thingy type="vpsubj" function="proclitic" gloss="3.anim"/>
-    <word posp="verb" gloss="be" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim"/>
-    <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active"/>
-    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PRES"/>
-    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative"/>
-    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS"/>
-    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q"/>
-    <word posp="noun" gloss="language" def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl" comma="after"/>
-    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
-    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def"/>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="1incl"/>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-    <word gloss="in" posp="pp" p="in" precise="no" location="inside"/>
-    <word posp="adj" gloss="different" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
-    <word posp="noun" gloss="manner" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner"/>
-    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
-    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="not.def"/>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
-    <word posp="noun" gloss="inside" def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner"/>
-    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS"/>
-    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def"/>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner"/>
+    <word gloss="but" posp="conj">|dˤ|o|</word>
+    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">|p|i|nˤ|ɯ|dˤ|</word>
+    <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active">-|o|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PAST">|t|o|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative">-</thingy>
+    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS">-</thingy>
+    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q">-</thingy>
+    <word posp="noun" gloss="langname" def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|ɲ|a|ʃ|</word>
+    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|e|f|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def">-|a|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
+    <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON" id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|zˤ|ɯ|</word>
+    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
+    <thingy type="vpsubj" function="proclitic" gloss="3.anim.SUBJ">-</thingy>
+    <word posp="verb" gloss="be" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim">|t͡ʃ|i|nˤ|</word>
+    <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active">-|o|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PRES">-</thingy>
+    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative">-</thingy>
+    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS">-</thingy>
+    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q">-</thingy>
+    <word posp="noun" gloss="language" def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl" comma="after">|ɡ|a|ʒ|</word>
+    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|e|f|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def">-|a|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="1incl.POSS">|h|u|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
+    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
+    <word gloss="in" posp="pp" p="in" precise="no" location="inside">|n|o|</word>
+    <word posp="adj" gloss="different" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|ɲ|i|ɡʷ|i|</word>
+    <word posp="noun" gloss="manner" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|f|ɤ|m|</word>
+    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|e|f|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="not.def">-|o|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
+    <word posp="noun" gloss="inside" def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">|t͡ʃ|u|sˤ|</word>
+    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|e|f|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def">-|a|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
  </flat>
</s>

vowelharmony:

<s connector="but" translation="">
  <flat>
    <word gloss="but" posp="conj">|dˤ|o|</word>
-    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">|p|i|nˤ|ɯ|dˤ|</word>
+    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">|p|ɯ|nˤ|ɯ|dˤ|</word>
    <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active">-|o|</thingy>
    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PAST">|t|o|</thingy>
    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative">-</thingy>
    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS">-</thingy>
    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q">-</thingy>
    <word posp="noun" gloss="langname" def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|ɲ|a|ʃ|</word>
    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|e|f|</thingy>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def">-|a|</thingy>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
    <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON" id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|zˤ|ɯ|</word>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
    <thingy type="vpsubj" function="proclitic" gloss="3.anim.SUBJ">-</thingy>
    <word posp="verb" gloss="be" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim">|t͡ʃ|i|nˤ|</word>
    <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active">-|o|</thingy>
    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PRES">-</thingy>
    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative">-</thingy>
    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS">-</thingy>
    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q">-</thingy>
    <word posp="noun" gloss="language" def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl" comma="after">|ɡ|a|ʒ|</word>
    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|e|f|</thingy>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def">-|a|</thingy>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="1incl.POSS">|h|u|</thingy>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp" p="in" precise="no" location="inside">|n|o|</word>
    <word posp="adj" gloss="different" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|ɲ|i|ɡʷ|i|</word>
    <word posp="noun" gloss="manner" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|f|ɤ|m|</word>
-    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|e|f|</thingy>
+    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|ɤ|f|</thingy>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="not.def">-|o|</thingy>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
    <word posp="noun" gloss="inside" def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">|t͡ʃ|u|sˤ|</word>
    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|e|f|</thingy>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def">-|a|</thingy>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
  </flat>
</s>

### |dˤ|o|
#-> dˤo
### |dˤ|o|
#-> dˤo
### |p|ɯ|nˤ|ɯ|dˤ|
#-> pɯnˤɯdˤ
### |p|ɯ|nˤ|ɯ|dˤ|
#-> pɯnˤɯdˤ
### -|o|
#-> -o
### -|o|
#-> -o
### |t|o|
#-> to
### |t|o|
#-> to
### |ɲ|a|ʃ|
#-> ɲaʃ
### |ɲ|a|ʃ|
#-> ɲaʃ
### -|e|f|
#-> -ef
### -|e|f|
#-> -ef
### -|a|
#-> -a
### -|a|
#-> -a
### -,
#-> -,
### |zˤ|ɯ|
#-> zˤɯ
### |zˤ|ɯ|
#-> zˤɯ
### |t͡ʃ|i|nˤ|
#-> t͡ʃinˤ
### |t͡ʃ|i|nˤ|
#-> t͡ʃinˤ
### -|o|
#-> -o
### -|o|
#-> -o
### |ɡ|a|ʒ|
#-> ɡaʒ
### |ɡ|a|ʒ|
#-> ɡaʒ
### -|e|f|
#-> -ef
### -|e|f|
#-> -ef
### -|a|
#-> -a
### -|a|
#-> -a
### |h|u|
#-> hu
### |h|u|
#-> hu
### -,
#-> -,
### |n|o|
#-> no
### |n|o|
#-> no
### |ɲ|i|ɡʷ|i|
#-> ɲiɡʷi
### |ɲ|i|ɡʷ|i|
#-> ɲiɡʷi
### |f|ɤ|m|
#-> fɤm
### |f|ɤ|m|
#-> fɤm
### -|ɤ|f|
#-> -ɤf
### -|ɤ|f|
#-> -ɤf
### -|o|
#-> -o
### -|o|
#-> -o
### |t͡ʃ|u|sˤ|
#-> t͡ʃusˤ
### |t͡ʃ|u|sˤ|
#-> t͡ʃusˤ
### -|e|f|
#-> -ef
### -|e|f|
#-> -ef
### -|a|
#-> -a
### -|a|
#-> -a
### |dˤ|o| |p|ɯ|nˤ|ɯ|dˤ||o| |t|o| |ɲ|a|ʃ||e|f||a|, |zˤ|ɯ| |t͡ʃ|i|nˤ||o| |ɡ|a|ʒ||e|f||a| |h|u|, |n|o| |ɲ|i|ɡʷ|i| |f|ɤ|m||ɤ|f||o| |t͡ʃ|u|sˤ||e|f||a|
#-> dˤo pɯnˤɯdˤo to ɲaʃefa, zˤɯ t͡ʃinˤo ɡaʒefa hu, no ɲiɡʷi fɤmɤfo t͡ʃusˤefa

removetags:

<s connector="but" translation="">
  <flat>
    <word gloss="but" posp="conj">|dˤ|o|</word>
    <word posp="verb" gloss="arise" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="past" asp="action" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PAST">|p|ɯ|nˤ|ɯ|dˤ|</word>
    <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active">-|o|</thingy>
    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PAST">|t|o|</thingy>
-    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative">-</thingy>
-    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS">-</thingy>
-    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q">-</thingy>
    <word posp="noun" gloss="langname" def="def" role="subj" tr="theme" locus="number" id="headnp" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|ɲ|a|ʃ|</word>
    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|e|f|</thingy>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def">-|a|</thingy>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
    <word posp="pron" gloss="RELPRON" id="relnp" def="neither" role="subj" comma="before" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|zˤ|ɯ|</word>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
-    <thingy type="vpsubj" function="proclitic" gloss="3.anim.SUBJ">-</thingy>
    <word posp="verb" gloss="be" negation="POS" question="not.Q" tense="present" asp="imperfective" mode="indicative" voice="active" ta="PRES" subj="3.anim" obj="3.anim">|t͡ʃ|i|nˤ|</word>
    <thingy type="verbvoice" function="suffix" gloss="active">-|o|</thingy>
-    <thingy type="vpta" function="enclitic" gloss="PRES">-</thingy>
-    <thingy type="vpmode" function="enclitic" gloss="indicative">-</thingy>
-    <thingy type="vpnegation" function="enclitic" gloss="POS">-</thingy>
-    <thingy type="vpquestion" function="enclitic" gloss="not.Q">-</thingy>
    <word posp="noun" gloss="language" def="def" tr="theme" locus="number" role="owned" gender="anim" possessor="1incl" comma="after">|ɡ|a|ʒ|</word>
    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|e|f|</thingy>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def">-|a|</thingy>
    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="1incl.POSS">|h|u|</thingy>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
    <word gloss="in" posp="pp" p="in" precise="no" location="inside">|n|o|</word>
    <word posp="adj" gloss="different" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|ɲ|i|ɡʷ|i|</word>
    <word posp="noun" gloss="manner" locus="number" gender="anim" possessor="no.owner">|f|ɤ|m|</word>
    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|ɤ|f|</thingy>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="not.def">-|o|</thingy>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
    <word posp="noun" gloss="inside" def="def" gender="inanim" possessor="no.owner">|t͡ʃ|u|sˤ|</word>
    <thingy type="nouncase" function="suffix" gloss="ABS">-|e|f|</thingy>
    <thingy type="noundef" function="suffix" gloss="def">-|a|</thingy>
-    <thingy type="nppossessor" function="enclitic" gloss="no.owner.POSS">-</thingy>
  </flat>
+  <p>&lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;dˤo&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;but&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;pɯnˤɯdˤ&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;arise&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;-o&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;active&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;to&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;&lt;span class="glssc"&gt;PAST&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;ɲaʃ&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;langname&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;-ef&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;&lt;span class="glssc"&gt;ABS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;-a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;def&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;zˤɯ&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;&lt;span class="glssc"&gt;RELPRON&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;t͡ʃinˤ&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;be&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;-o&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;active&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;ɡaʒ&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;language&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;-ef&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;&lt;span class="glssc"&gt;ABS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;-a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;def&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;hu&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;1incl.&lt;span class="glssc"&gt;POSS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;no&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;in&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;ɲiɡʷi&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;different&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;fɤm&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;manner&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;-ɤf&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;&lt;span class="glssc"&gt;ABS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;-o&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;not.def&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;t͡ʃusˤ&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;inside&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;-ef&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;&lt;span class="glssc"&gt;ABS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt; &lt;span class="ilpair"&gt;&lt;span class="mor"&gt;-a&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;span class="gls"&gt;def&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;</p>
+  <p>dˤo pɯnˤɯdˤo to ɲaʃefa, zˤɯ t͡ʃinˤo ɡaʒefa hu, no ɲiɡʷi fɤmɤfo t͡ʃusˤefa</p>
+  <p>ḍo pưṇưḍo to ñashefa, ẓư chiṇo gazhefa hu, no ñigwi fơmơfo chuṣefa</p>
+  <il>
+    <w>
+      <o>dˤo</o>
+      <g>but</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>pɯnˤɯdˤ</o>
+      <g>arise</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-o</o>
+      <g>active</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>to</o>
+      <g>PAST</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>ɲaʃ</o>
+      <g>langname</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-ef</o>
+      <g>ABS</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-a</o>
+      <g>def</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-,</o>
+      <g>no.owner.POSS</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>zˤɯ</o>
+      <g>RELPRON</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>t͡ʃinˤ</o>
+      <g>be</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-o</o>
+      <g>active</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>ɡaʒ</o>
+      <g>language</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-ef</o>
+      <g>ABS</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-a</o>
+      <g>def</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>hu</o>
+      <g>1incl.POSS</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-,</o>
+      <g>no.owner.POSS</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>no</o>
+      <g>in</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>ɲiɡʷi</o>
+      <g>different</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>fɤm</o>
+      <g>manner</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-ɤf</o>
+      <g>ABS</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-o</o>
+      <g>not.def</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>t͡ʃusˤ</o>
+      <g>inside</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-ef</o>
+      <g>ABS</g>
+    </w>
+    <w>
+      <o>-a</o>
+      <g>def</g>
+    </w>
+  </il>
</s>

Ḍo pưṇưḍo to ñashefa, ẓư chiṇo gazhefa hu, no ñigwi fơmơfo chuṣefa.

But our language arose in a different way.

Useful pages: